Ecological Traits and Genetic Variation in Amazonian Populations of the Neotropical Millipede Poratia obliterata (Kraus, 1960) (Diplopoda: Pyrgodesmidae) (Brazil)
Natalie Bergholz
Natalie Bergholz 2007. Ecological Traits and Genetic Variation in Amazonian Populations of the Neotropical Millipede Poratia obliterata (Kraus, 1960) (Diplopoda: Pyrgodesmidae) (Brazil)
Invertebrate Ecology and Conservation Monographs, ISSN 13129082, ISBN 9789546422903, Pensoft Publishers, Sofia-Moscow, Richly illustrated by color and b/w photos, graphs and maps, in English, 198 pp., paperback.
Price €URO 60.00.

Table of contents

Editorial — 5 1 Introduction — 13 1.1 Study Area — 13 1.1.1 Geology of the Amazon Basin — 13 1.1.2 Climate — 15 1.1.3 Water Level Regime — 16 1.1.4 Seasonal Inundation Forests — 16 1.2 The Millipede Poratia obliterata — 17 1.2.1 Classification and Biology — 17 1.2.1.1 Systematics — 17 1.2.1.2 Basic Anatomy — 18 1.2.1.3 Characterisation — 19 1.2.1.4 Development — 20 1.2.1.5 Ecology — 21 1.2.1.6 Dispersal Ability — 23 1.2.2 Origin and Range of P. obliterata Populations — 23 1.2.3 Biotope-Related Adaptation and Speciation? — 24 1.3 Survival Strategies in Central Amazonian Floodplains — 26 1.4 Molecular Markers in Population Genetics — 29 1.4.1 Definition of Molecular Markers — 29 1.4.2 Subject of Population Genetics — 29 1.4.3 Application of Molecular Markers — 29 1.4.3.1 Classification and Speciation — 29 1.4.3.2 Adaptive Divergence among Populations — 31 1.4.4 Technique — 31 1.4.5 Appraisal: Choice of an Appropriate Marker — 32 2 Thesis Outline — 33 2.1 Part I: Ecological Traits — 33 2.2 Part II: Genetic Variation — 33 3 Ecological Traits — 35 3.1 Material and Methods — 35 3.1.1 Study Sites — 35 3.1.1.1 Várzea — 35 3.1.1.2 Igapó — 38 3.1.1.3 Várzea & Igapó — 41 3.1.1.4 Terra firme — 44 3.1.1.4.1 Banana Plantation at CPPA/Embrapa — 44 3.1.1.4.2 Upland Forest Reserve ‘Reserva A. Ducke’ — 45 3.1.2 Monitoring and Sampling of P. obliterata in the Field — 46 3.1.2.1 Inundation Forests — 46 3.1.2.2 Banana Plantation — 47 3.1.3 Estimation of Flood Periods for Individual Sample Trees — 47 3.1.4 Determination of Humidity in Microhabitats — 47 3.1.5 Identification of Collected Millipedes — 48 3.1.6 Laboratory Experiments — 49 3.1.6.1 Flooding Experiment — 49 3.1.6.2 Reproduction Experiment — 49 3.1.7 Data Analysis and Statistics — 52 3.2 Results — 54 3.2.1 Abiotic Factors — 54 3.2.1.1 Precipitation — 54 3.2.1.2 Water Level — 55 3.2.1.3 Minimum Flood Period at Study Sites — 56 3.2.1.4 Humidity in the Microhabitat — 58 3.2.2 Morphology — 59 3.2.2.1 Poratia obliterata — 59 3.2.2.2 Other Millipede Species — 59 3.2.3 Ethology — 60 3.2.3.1 Inundation Forests — 60 3.2.3.1.1 Seasonal Vertical Migration — 60 3.2.3.1.2 Preferred Microhabitats and Gregarious Behaviour — 61 3.2.3.2 Banana Plantation — 79 3.2.4 Phenology — 79 3.2.4.1 Life Cycle (Progress of Stages, Sex Ratio) — 79 3.2.4.1.1 Inundation Forests — 79 3.2.4.1.2 Banana Plantation — 84 3.2.4.2 Reproduction (Mating, Eggs) — 84 3.2.4.2.1 Inundation Forests — 84 3.2.4.2.2 Banana Plantation — 86 3.2.5 Laboratory Experiments — 87 3.2.5.1 Flooding Experiment — 87 3.2.5.2 Reproduction Experiment — 89 3.3 Discussion — 97 3.3.1 Abundance in Different Biotopes — 97 3.3.2 Life History Traits — 100 3.3.2.1 Seasonal Vertical Migration — 100 3.3.2.2 Microhabitat Selection and Social Behaviour — 104 3.3.2.2.1 Choice of Adequate Microhabitats — 104 3.3.2.2.2 Gregarious Behaviour — 107 3.3.2.2.3 Species Interactions — 110 3.3.2.3 Life Cycle and Postembryonic Development — 113 3.3.2.3.1 Life Cycle in the Field — 113 3.3.2.3.2 Evolution of the Univoltine Life Cycle — 117 3.3.2.3.3 Regulation by Maternal Effects — 118 3.3.2.3.4 External Cues for Reproduction and Development — 121 3.3.3 Synopsis — 125 4 Genetic Variation — 127 4.1 Material and Methods — 127 4.1.1 Sample Collection — 127 4.1.2 Agarose Gel Isoelectric Focussing (AGIF) — 128 4.1.2.1 Sample Preparation — 128 4.1.2.2 Preparation of the Agarose Gel — 131 4.1.2.3 Isoelectric Focussing — 132 4.1.2.4 Staining Procedure — 132 4.1.2.5 Interpretation of Zymograms — 133 4.1.3 Data Analysis and Statistics — 133 4.2 Results — 134 4.2.1 Zymograms — 134 4.2.2 Allelic Variation within and among Biotope Types — 135 4.2.3 Heterozygosis and Hardy-Weinberg Distribution — 138 4.2.4 Effective Number of Alleles per Locus — 138 4.2.5 Genotypic Linkage Equilibrium between Loci — 139 4.2.6 Genetic Differentiation among Populations — 139 4.2.6.1 Within-Subpopulation Variance of Genetic Diversity — 139 4.2.6.2 Genetic Variability between Subpopulations — 143 4.2.6.3 Genotypic Distinction of Biotope Types — 150 4.2.7 Population Genetic Structure — 151 4.2.8 Isolation by Distance and Effective Number of Migrants — 153 4.2.9 Cluster Analysis of Genetic Similarity — 155 4.3 Discussion — 158 4.3.1 Population Dynamics and Adaptation in P. obliterata — 158 4.3.1.1 Concept of Dispersal — 158 4.3.1.2 Adaptation Hypothesis — 159 4.3.1.3 Population Genetic Implications from Allozyme Data — 159 4.3.1.3.1 Random Mating and Outcrossing — 159 4.3.1.3.2 Gene Flow and Population Subdivision — 161 4.3.1.3.3 Unidirectional Dispersal and Biotope-Related Differentiation — 163 4.3.1.4 Local Adaptation versus Phenotypic Plasticity — 165 4.3.2 Allozyme Variability within Populations of P. obliterata — 168 4.3.3 Synopsis — 169 5 Conclusions — 171 6 Acknowledgements — 173 7 References — 175

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